Ethnomycology of the World - Information on Edible, Medicinal, and Psychoactive Fungi <style type="text/css">  </style> </head> <body bgcolor="000000"> <center> <img src="images/ethnomytop.jpg"> <br> <hr color=dda319 width=85%> <table width=85% cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0> <tr> <th colspan=2 bgcolor=b78816><font face=verdana>Fungi: A fundamental aspect of human culture</th> </tr> <tr> <td valign=top width=15%><font face=verdana><br> <a href="index.html">Home</a><br> <a href="fungi.html">What Are Fungi?</a><br> <a href="tools.html">Fungi As Tools</a><br> <a href="medicinal.html">Medicinal Fungi</a><br> <a href="edible.html">Edible Fungi</a><br> <a href="psychoactive.html">Psychoactive Fungi</a><br> <a href="references.html">References And Links</a></b> </td> <td> <font color=dda319 face=verdana><br> <center><a href="psychoactive.html">Overview</a> | <b>Visionary Fungi</b> | <a href="alcohol.html">Wine & Beer</a> </center> <br> <font color="cc6633" face=verdana> <font color="dda319"><b>The Amanitas</b></font><p> <table align=left border=1 bordercolor=dda319 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 rules=none style="margin-right:10px"> <tr><td> <a href="images/fly_agaric2.jpg"><img src="images/fly_agaric2.jpg" height=256 width=200 border=0></a> </td></tr> <tr><td bgcolor=b78816 width=200 align=center><font size=2>Figure 1. <i>Amanita muscaria</i>. Note bright red cap with white bumps, and the noticable volva at the base of the stem</td></tr> </table> <i>Amanita muscaria</i> has been used in shamanism since the Pleistocene by tribes in Siberia. The Paleo-Indians who crossed the Bering Straits brought the mushroom using cult into North America, which would eventually change into the use of Psilocybe mushrooms (Rätsch).<p> Siberian shamans eat dried fly agarics to enter trance states in order to perform shamanic healing. The Koryak people believe that the fly agaric grew from the saliva of the highest god. In Germanic mythology, stories associate Wotan (Odin) with the fly agaric. Legend says that the fly agaric would appear after Wotan rode through the clouds on his horse at the winter solstice. The following autumn, fly agarics would grow from the soil touched by the foam of the mouth of Wotan's horse (Rätsch). <p> <font color=dda319><b>Taxonomy</b></font><p> <table bordercolor=cc6633 rules=none border=1 width=50%><tr><td valign=top> <font face=verdana color=dda319> Phylum:<br> Class:<br> Order: <br> Family:<br> Genus:<br> Species:<br> </font> </td> <td> <font face=verdana color=cc6633> Basidomycota<br> Agaricomycetes<br> Agaricales<br> Amanitaceae<br> <i>Amanita</i><br> <i>citrina, cothurnata, gemmata, <b>muscaria, pantherina,</b> parcivolvata, porphyria, strobiliformis, tomentella</i><br> </td></tr> <tr><td colspan=2><font color=cc6633 face=verdana>Most active species in <b>bold</b>.</td></tr></table><p> <font color=dda319><b>Mycological Data</b></font><p> <font color=dda319>Description:</font> White stipe with annulus. The pileus is red with white remnants of the universal veil. At the base of the stipe is a volva (Figure 1.) Gills are free from stipe. Spore print is white (Kendrick).<br> <font color=dda319>Distrubition & Habitat:</font> <i>Amanitas muscaria</i> is mychorrizal to birch (Betula sp.) and pine (Pinus sp.) trees. As such it is found throughout the world.<br> <font color=dda319>Constituents:</font> <i>Amanita muscaria</i> contains appreciable amounts of ibotenic acid (0.03-0.1%) and some muscimol. Ibotenic acid will decarboxylate into muscimol upon drying. Muscarine, a toxin, occurs only in trace amounts (0.0003%). The species <i>A. citrina, A. porphyria, and A. tomentella</i> contain bufotenine, a tryptamine derivative closely related to N,N-DMT, 5-MeO-DMT, and psilocybin (Rätsch).<p> <font color=dda319><b>Preperation & Dosage</b></font><p> Amanita muscaria may be consumed fresh or dried. A standard dried dose is 5-10g. The mushrooms can be added to alcohol. 1-3 mushrooms can be added to a bottle of vodka (or other alcohol) and placed in a warm location. After a week the drink will be ready for use. One glass should be sufficient to produce psychoactive effects (Rätsch).<p> <table align=right border=1 bordercolor=dda319 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 rules=none style="margin-left:10px"> <tr><td> <a href="images/fly_agaric.jpg"><img src="images/fly_agaric.jpg" height=142 border=0></a> </td></tr> <tr><td bgcolor=b78816 align=center><font size=2>Figure 2. <i>Amanita muscaria</i></td></tr> </table> To dry mushrooms, place in sun or on a rack in an oven set at a low temperature of 30-40 degrees celsius. The dried mushrooms may be smoked, crumbled into a drink, or eaten.<p> Traditionally in Siberia, fly agarics are dried and mixed with fresh bog bilberries (<i>Vaccinium uliginosum</i>) or rose bay willow herb (<i>Epilobium angustifolium</i>). The mixture is then used or diluted with water, fermented, and made into a fly agaric beer (Rätsch).<p> A naturally occurring extract known as "Dwarves' wine" is made from rain water that has collected in the caps of mushrooms (Rätsch).<p> <hr color=cc6633><p> <font color=dda319><b>The Psilocybes</b></font><p> <table align=left border=1 bordercolor=dda319 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 rules=none style="margin-right:10px"> <tr><td> <a href="images/psilo3.jpg"><img src="images/psilo3.jpg" height=256 width=200 border=0></a> </td></tr> <tr><td bgcolor=b78816 width=200 align=center><font size=2>Figure 3. <i>Psilocybe semilanceata</i>.</td></tr> </table> The history of <i>Psilocybe</i> may be the history of humanity itself. The near world-wide distribution of <i>Psilocybes</i> make it easily attainable. Archaeological evidence of shamanic mushroom use (not necessarily <i>Psilocybe</i>) can be found as early as 5000 B.C.E. with the rock paintings of Tassili. More recent evidence comes from Mexico in the form of mushroom stones (figure 5), which date from 300-1000 B.C.E. (Schultes). Mushroom use was prevalent in Mexico prior the Spanish conquest and was an important aspect of Mesoamerican religion and life. The fungi were served at the coronation feast of Moctezuma in 1502 (Schultes). After the Spanish destruction of the Aztecs and the regions indigenous ways of life, the mushroom using cults went underground and were forgotten by Western man. <p> The mushrooms would be lost from Western eyes until a banker named R. Gordon Wasson found himself immersed in ethnomycology with his wife. In the fall of 1952 the two discovered the writings of sixteenth century Spaniards describing the mushrooms. Around the same time, the first of the mushroom stones began to be unearthed by archaeologists in Mexico. They knew also of the writings of earlier ethnobotanists who reported that the mushroom using cult still existed in Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca, Mexico, and so they went off in search of the sacred mushrooms. They did find it, and Wasson took part in the sacred mushroom vilada and experienced the ecstasy of the divine mushroom for himself, of which he wrote: <p> <center> <table width=70%><tr><td> <div align=justify> <font color=dda319 face=verdana size=2>"The sacred mushrooms of Mexico seize hold of you with irresistible power. They lead to a temporary (state)...in which your body lies, heavy as lead, on the mat, and you take notes and compare experiences with your neighbor, while your soul flies off to the ends of the world and, indeed to other planes of existence...some seem to experience only a divine euphoria, which may translate itself into uncontrollable laughter...I experienced hallucinations...visions of palaces, gardens, seascapes, and mountains...With the speed of thought you are translated wherever you desire to be, and you are there, a disembodied eye, poised in space, seeing, not seen, invisible, incorporeal. I have placed stress on the visual hallucinations, but all the senses are equally affected, and the human organism as a whole is lifted to a plane of intense experience. Everyday experiences are transformed, leaving you breathless with wonder and delight. The emotions and intellect are similarly stepped up. Your whole being is aquiver with life."</font></div></td></tr></table> </center><p> <table align=right border=1 bordercolor=dda319 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 rules=none style="margin-left:10px"> <tr><td width=300> <a href="images/mariasabina.jpg"><img src="images/mariasabina.jpg" border=0></a> </td></tr> <tr><td bgcolor=b78816 align=center><font size=2>Figure 4. Maria Sabina, Mazatec shaman consuming <i>Psilocybe mexicana</i>.</td></tr> </table> When taken in ritual the mushroom causes a distinct alteration of perception on the world. Gone are the cultural weights and preconditioned biases and prejudices. Instead the participant bares witness to the universe as it is, unfiltered by the brain. There is a transfer of information, the indigenous truths that have long been lost to the industrial civilizations of the world. It has been hypothesized that psilocybin, the active ingredient of the <i>Psilocybe</i> species of mushrooms, provided the catalyst for human evolution. The use of which allowed for an increase in imagination, creativity, language, and art: the cultural basis of all human groups (McKenna).<p> Now in the 21st century, countless millennia removed from our archaic past, these mushrooms have been outlawed. Stolen from the people of Earth by oppressive dominating cultures that decide what it is to be real. Scare tactics and fear-mongering allowed for these laws to be made without any scientific inquiries as to the actuall health risks from using the substances. Instead they were banned not for safety of the individual, but for safety of the dominator culture that has long been in place. Such cultures require the boundaries of nation, race and ethnicity, of the sexes and religions. Psilocybin breaks down such boundaries, and removes all barriers of social interaction (McKenna). <p> <font color=dda319><b>Taxonomy</b></font><br> <table border=1 bordercolor=dda319 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 rules=none align=right style="margin-left:10px"> <tr><td> <a href="images/mushstone.jpg"><img src="images/mushstone.jpg" height=214 width=400 border=0></a> </td></tr> <tr><td bgcolor=b78816 width=400 align=center><font size=2 face=nullvalue> Figure 5. Mushroom stones unearthed in Guatemala</td></tr> </table><p> <table bordercolor=cc6633 rules=none border=1 width=50%><tr><td valign=top> <font face=verdana color=dda319> Phylum:<br> Class:<br> Order: <br> Family:<br> Genus:<br> Species:<br> </font> </td> <td> <font face=verdana color=cc6633> Basidomycota<br> Agaricomycetes<br> Agaricales<br> Strophariaceae<br> <i>Psilocybe</i><br> <i>Psilocybe azurescens, Psilocybe cubensis, Psilocybe cyanescens, Psilocybe mexicana, Psilocybe semilanceata</i><br> </td></tr> <tr><td colspan=2><font color=cc6633 face=verdana>There are many more species of <i>Psilocybe</i>. The ones listed here are some of the more potent and have been used ethnomycologically.</td></tr> </table><p> <font color=dda319><b>Mycological Data</b></font><p> <font color=dda319>Description:</font> Most <i>Psilocybes</i> have conic to campanulate pilei (cap) with long, thing central stipes. Adnate lamellae (gills). Purple-brown spore print. Spores are smooth, thick-walled, with an apical pore, nonamyloid. Most species bruise blue on the stipe and pileus (O.K. Miller). According to Paul Staments, no other genus <b>both</b> bruises blue and has purple spore prints (Stamets).<br> <font color=dda319>Distrubition & Habitat:</font><br> <i><u>Psilocybe cubensis</u></i> can be found throughout the tropics wherever there is cattle dung. This includes Mexico, Cuba, Guatemala, Colombia, Bolivia, Brazil, Argentina, Florida, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Australia (Rätsch). In North America, <i>P. cubensis</i> can be found from South Carolina to Florida, and west into east Texas (O.K. Miller).<br> <i><u>Psilocybe mexicana</u></i> is found exclusively in Mexico and Guatemala in subtropical forests at altitudes of 1,000 to 1,800 meters and found in the vicinity of liquidambar (<i>Liquidambar styraciflua</i>), alder (<i>Alnus sp.</i>), and plane (<i>Platanus lindeniana</i>) (Rätsch).<br> <i><u>Psilocybe semilanceata</u></i> can be found throughout the world, but most often found in temperate regions of North American and Europe. It prefers meadows and pastures. In North America it is found west of the Cascades in the United States and Canada (O.K. Miller).<br> <i><u>Psilocybe cyanescens</u></i> is native to North America and Europe. It can be found in the Pacific Northwest in fairy rings of up to 100 pounds! It often grows on mulch, sawdust, rotten wood, and wood chips. In North America it is found on the coastal areas of Vancouver, Canada and Washington, Oregon, and California (O.K. Miller). <br> <i><u>Psilocybe azurescens</u></i> is found on wood remains in the coastal regions of Oregon and Washington (Rätsch).<br> <font color=dda319>Constituents:</font> Psilocybin, psilocin, and baeocystin, indole alkaloids of the class tryptamine (Rätsch).<p> <table align=right border=1 bordercolor=dda319 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 rules=none style="margin-left:10px"> <tr><td bgcolor=ffffff> <a href="images/psilocybin.png"><img src="images/psilocybin.png" height=200 width=200 border=0></a> </td></tr> <tr><td bgcolor=b78816 align=center width=200><font size=2>Figure 6. Psilocybin molecule, main active chemical of <i>Psilocybe</i> mushrooms.</td></tr> </table> <font color=dda319><b>Preperation & Dosage</b></font><p> Psilocybe mushrooms may be eaten fresh or dried, but the dosage depends on the species and preperation. Psilocybe cubensis when dried produces psychoactive effects in doses as low as one gram. A ritual dose of Psilocybe cubensis is 3.5 grams on upwards to 4 or 5 grams. If 3.5 grams is considered a "normal" ritual dose, then 5 grams must be considered a very high dose. Storing mushrooms is best done in air tight containers or paper bags and placed in a cold, dark area, such as a refrigerator. Aside from eating the mushrooms plain, they can be eaten with foods such as chocolate (as was one way by the Aztecs), juice, toast, sautéed, or made into tea. Heat can destroy psilocybin/psilocin content so a low flame or non-boiling water is best recommended.<p> Collected mushrooms can be dried in a number of ways. The mushrooms can be placed on a open container, such as a plate or bowl and put under a fan. Mushrooms can be strung up using a needle and thin hemp rope and hung from the ceiling. The mushrooms can also be laid out flat and allowed to be baked by the sun. <p> <font color=dda319><b>Notice & Disclaimer</b></font><p> Psilocybin and psilocin are Schedule I drugs in the United States. Possession of psilocybin containing mushrooms is illegal. The spores of these mushrooms do not contain psilocybin and are not considered illegal in federal law. California, Georgia, and Idaho have passed laws which do make the spores illegal. For more information on the legal status of <i>Psilocybe</i> mushrooms visit <a href="http://www.erowid.org">The Vaults of Erowid</a>'s page on <a href="http://www.erowid.org/plants/mushrooms/mushrooms_law.shtml" target=new>mushroom laws</a>. If you would like more information on the potential uses of psilocybin, or favor the re-legalization of entheogenic plants and fungi, please visit the <a href="http://www.maps.org/" target=new>Multidisciplinary Association For Psychedelic Studies</a>. <hr color=cc6633><p> <font color=dda319><b>Ergot</b></font><p> <table align=left border=1 bordercolor=dda319 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 rules=none style="margin-right:10px"> <tr><td> <a href="images/psilo3.jpg"><img src="images/Ergot01.jpg" height=256 width=200 border=0></a> </td></tr> <tr><td bgcolor=b78816 width=200 align=center><font size=2>Figure 7. <i>Claviceps purpurea</i> growing on wheat</td></tr> </table> This history of Ergot dates as far back as the cultivation of grains such as rye (<i>Secale cereale</i>), barley (<i>Hordeum vulgare</i>), and wheat (<i>Triticum sp.</i>). Its use as a hallucinogen in the Eleusian Mysteries is uncertain, but if used, it was made into a magical elixir known as the Kykeon. This drink would have been a water based extraction of the ergot alkaloids, as consumption of ergot is in itself poisonous. During the Middle Ages outbreaks of Ergotism killed thousands. This epidemic was called St. Anthony's Fire and characterized by visions, convulsions, gangrene, and death.<p> <font color=dda319><b>Taxonomy</b></font><p> <table bordercolor=cc6633 rules=none border=1 width=50%><tr><td valign=top> <font face=verdana color=dda319> Phylum:<br> Class:<br> Order: <br> Family:<br> Genus:<br> Species:<br> </font> </td> <td> <font face=verdana color=cc6633> Ascomycota<br> Sordariomycetes<br> Hypocreales<br> Clavicipitaceae<br> <i>Claviceps</i><br> <i>purpurea</i><br> </td></tr> </table><p> <font color=dda319><b>Mycological Data</b></font><p> <table border=1 bordercolor=dda319 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 rules=none align=right style="margin-left:10px; margin-bottom:10px;"> <tr><td> <a href="images/ergot.jpg"><img src="images/ergot.jpg" height=214 border=0></a> </td></tr> <tr><td bgcolor=b78816 width=10 align=center><font size=2 face=nullvalue> Figure 8. Magnified view of a fruiting <i>Claviceps purpurea</i> sclerotia.</td></tr> </table><p> <font color=dda319>Description:</font> Ergot forms dark-purple, conelike sclerotium which can grow up to 6cm in length and stick out of the flowering grain (Rätsch). Small fruiting bodies emerge from the sclerotia (figure 8).<br> <font color=dda319>Distrubition & Habitat:</font> Claviceps purpurea can be found worldwide as a parasite to grasses and cereal grains (Rätsch)<br> <font color=dda319>Constituents:</font> The ergot alkaloids. Ergot alkaloids may be divided into two groups, one which as hallucinogenic effects, and the other which has toxic effects. Lysergic acid amide (LSA) is the main hallucinogenic constituent of ergot.<p> <font color=dda319><b>Preperation & Dosage</b></font><p> <b>Ergot should never be eaten for any reason because it is deadly toxic in its natural state</b>. Ergot has been used medicinally since medieval times by midwives to induce contractions, hasten childbirth, and to treat postpartum complications (Rätsch). It is best not to use ergot medicinally unless you have been trained in its specific uses by experienced herbalists. It is possible to extract ergot in a cold water solution, but this may still be dangerous since the <b>deadly toxic</b> alkaloids may also be extracted.<p> <font color=dda319><b>Notice & Disclaimer</b></font><p> LSA is a schedule I drug in the United states and illegal to possess, atleast in purified form. It should be repeated again that because of the toxicity of ergot, there are alternative ways to experience the ergot alkaloids by using other organisms. The seeds of the morning glory vines (<i>Ipomoea violacea</i>) contain LSA but do not contain the deadly toxic ergot alkaloids. For these reasons the seeds of this plant has been used in the same context as Psilocybe mexicana by Mesoamericans. For more information on morning glory, please read my paper <a href="http://goa-shoom.net/botanica/Vines%20of%20the%20Serpent.pdf" target=new>Vines of the Serpent: A Morning Glory Ethnobotanical</a>.<p> </td> </tr> </table> <p> <center> <font size=2 color=cc6633>(c) 2007-2009. <a href="mailto:psyghost@gmail.com">Frank Mandarino</a>. Return to <a href="http://www.goa-shoom.net">Goa-Shoom.net</a> </body> </html>